, 2014), providing evidence that reconsolidation interference may target the original aversive memory trace. The effects of stress and stress hormones on reconsolidation processes have remained relatively unexplored, however, some recent selleck investigations have begun to characterize these effects. In animals, administration of propranolol directly into the amygdala after a threatening association is reactivated impairs the reconsolidation of cued (Debiec and LeDoux, 2004) and contextual fear (Abrari et al., 2009) as well as memory of avoidance training (Przybyslawski et al., 1999), whereas increasing noradrenaline after reactivation

can enhance its later retrieval (Debiec et al., 2011). This is consistent with research in humans that has reported attenuated fear-related

symptoms when PTSD or trauma victims are administered propranolol after the reactivation of traumatic memories (Brunet et al., 2008, Orr et al., 2000, Pitman and Delahanty, 2005 and Pitman et al., 2002). Blocking glucocorticoid release in the amygdala immediately (but not 6 h) after an aversive fear memory is reactivated impairs the subsequent retrieval of the aversive association but leaves within-session responses intact, an effect seen for memories Protease Inhibitor Library cost that were both 1 or 10 days old (Jin et al., 2007). Similar effects were shown in an inhibitory avoidance task where systemic glucocorticoid antagonists were administered after fear memory reactivation (Taubenfeld et al., 2009 and Nikzad et al., 2011). Glucocorticoid administration directly after fear memory

retrieval has also been shown to impair the subsequent retrieval of aversive associations, however, rather than impairing reconsolidation this effects appeared to be the result of enhancing extinction consolidation (Cai Sodium butyrate et al., 2006). While the impact of acute stress on the reconsolidation process is relatively unexplored, there is evidence suggesting that the strength of the aversive US during initial fear acquisition can modulate the later susceptibility to interventions used to target reconsolidation (Suzuki et al., 2004 and Finsterwald and Alberini, 2014). The effect of stress on fear memory reconsolidation has not been formally tested in humans. However, a recent study reported that across six different studies assessing how propranolol administration before or after fear memory retrieval might disrupt the reconsolidation of fear memory, individuals who reported higher levels of trait anxiety were more resistant to the effects of reconsolidation interference. This suggests that individuals who are most vulnerable to the effects of stress may be less responsive to fear memory disruption using this technique (Soeter and Kindt, 2013). From minor daily annoyances to deeply traumatic events, stressful experiences constitute an undeniable aspect of daily life.