Individual cells apoptose, while the neighboring cells

remain undamaged [3, 4]. Apoptosis is a complex process whereby a proteolytic cascade of caspases is activated INK1197 clinical trial in cells [5]. The occurrence of apoptosis is a feature of female germline development common to vertebrate and invertebrate species [6, 7]. In the Drosophila melanogaster ovaries, there are two checkpoints where programmed cell death occurs. One is in the germarium (region 2a/2b), where apoptosis probably regulates the proper ratio of germline cells to follicle cells [8]. The other checkpoint is located in the vitellarium (stages 7-8 of oogenesis) [9]. The number of egg chambers undergoing apoptosis increased in D. melanogaster fed a diet lacking protein [8], under the effect of 900-MHz and 1800-MHz radiation [10], and after exposure to chemical agents [11]. The normal development of mature egg is consistently associated with apoptosis of 15 nurse cells in the

egg chamber [12]. It is noteworthy that apoptosis and autophagy coexist at all the above mentioned stages of oogenesis in D. melanogaster [13, 14]. It has been also hypothesized that the apoptotic process had a symbiotic origin [15]. In terms of the endosymbiotic selleck kinase inhibitor theory, mitochondria, which play a major role at the early stages of apoptosis, evolved from the free-living prokaryotes [5]. One of the symbionts may be involved in the regulation of apoptosis in partner cells. To illustrate, extracellular parasites, particularly such worms as filarial nematodes, schistosomes and the cestode Taenia crassiceps, are able to induce apoptosis in host immune cells [16]. Bacterial pathogens (Chlamydia, Neisseria, Legionella pneumophila) can either block or induce apoptosis in host cells, depending on the stage of infection

[17, 18]. At the early Phloretin stage of infection, bacteria replicate in the host cell, using different mechanisms to prevent apoptosis. At the late stages of infection, the bacteria induce apoptosis in the host cell, thereby facilitating egress and ensuring Capmatinib molecular weight infection of neighboring cells. Wolbachia associated with various hosts in which it manipulates viability and reproduction causing parthenogenesis, feminization, male killing and cytoplasmic incompatibility, provides a unique model for studying mechanisms of symbiont interactions [19, 20]. The Wolbachia strain wMel is widely spread in natural populations of D. melanogaster [21, 22]; in contrast, wMelPop has been detected in a laboratory stock of D. melanogaster [23]. It is possibly not encountered in nature. In D. melanogaster, the wMelPop strain reduces lifespan, proliferating widely in the brain, muscle and retina cells [23]. In certain insect species, the presence of Wolbachia is required for oogenesis [24].