Mitochondrial disease patients experience paroxysmal neurological manifestations, often taking the form of stroke-like episodes. Stroke-like episodes frequently manifest with focal-onset seizures, encephalopathy, and visual disturbances, predominantly in the posterior cerebral cortex. Recessive POLG gene variants are a common cause of stroke-like episodes, trailing only the m.3243A>G mutation within the MT-TL1 gene. This chapter will dissect the concept of a stroke-like episode and thoroughly analyze the clinical presentations, neuroimaging data, and electroencephalographic patterns commonly observed in affected patients. Not only that, but a consideration of several lines of evidence emphasizes the central role of neuronal hyper-excitability in stroke-like episodes. Aggressive seizure management and the treatment of concomitant complications, such as intestinal pseudo-obstruction, should be the primary focus of stroke-like episode management. There's a substantial lack of robust evidence supporting l-arginine's efficacy in both acute and preventative situations. Progressive brain atrophy and dementia are consequences of recurring stroke-like episodes, and the underlying genetic profile is, in part, indicative of the prognosis.

The neuropathological condition, subacute necrotizing encephalomyelopathy, better known as Leigh syndrome, was initially identified and categorized in 1951. Bilateral symmetrical lesions, typically extending from the basal ganglia and thalamus to the posterior columns of the spinal cord via brainstem structures, display microscopic features of capillary proliferation, gliosis, severe neuronal loss, and relative astrocyte preservation. Leigh syndrome, a disorder affecting individuals of all ethnicities, typically commences in infancy or early childhood, although late-onset cases, including those in adulthood, are evident. For the last six decades, this multifaceted neurodegenerative disorder has manifested as more than a hundred unique monogenic conditions, displaying substantial clinical and biochemical variation. Demand-driven biogas production Clinical, biochemical, and neuropathological aspects of the disorder, together with proposed pathomechanisms, are addressed in this chapter. Known genetic causes, encompassing defects in 16 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genes and almost 100 nuclear genes, result in disorders affecting oxidative phosphorylation enzyme subunits and assembly factors, issues with pyruvate metabolism, vitamin and cofactor transport and metabolism, mtDNA maintenance, and defects in mitochondrial gene expression, protein quality control, lipid remodeling, dynamics, and toxicity. This approach to diagnosis is explored, together with established treatable origins, a synopsis of current supportive care, and an examination of evolving therapies.

Genetic disorders stemming from faulty oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) characterize the extreme heterogeneity of mitochondrial diseases. No remedy presently exists for these medical issues, apart from supportive treatments focusing on alleviating complications. Mitochondria's genetic blueprint is dual, comprising both mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA. Therefore, predictably, modifications to either genetic code can trigger mitochondrial disorders. Despite their primary association with respiration and ATP synthesis, mitochondria are integral to a vast array of biochemical, signaling, and execution processes, making each a possible therapeutic focus. General treatments for diverse mitochondrial conditions, in contrast to personalized approaches for single diseases, such as gene therapy, cell therapy, and organ transplantation, are available. A considerable increase in clinical applications of mitochondrial medicine has characterized the field's recent evolution, demonstrating the robust nature of the research. This chapter reviews the latest therapeutic attempts from preclinical research and offers an update on the clinical trials currently active. In our estimation, a new era is underway, where the treatment targeting the cause of these conditions becomes a real and attainable goal.

Clinical presentations in mitochondrial disease are strikingly variable, with tissue-specific symptoms emerging across different disorders in this group. Variations in patients' tissue-specific stress responses are contingent upon their age and the kind of dysfunction they experience. These reactions result in the release of metabolically active signaling molecules into the systemic circulation. These signals—metabolites or metabokines—can also be leveraged as diagnostic markers. Recent advances in biomarker research over the past ten years have described metabolite and metabokine markers for mitochondrial disease diagnosis and monitoring, providing an alternative to the traditional blood indicators of lactate, pyruvate, and alanine. This novel instrumentation includes FGF21 and GDF15 metabokines; NAD-form cofactors; diverse metabolite sets (multibiomarkers); and the entirety of the metabolome. Muscle-manifesting mitochondrial diseases are characterized by the superior specificity and sensitivity of FGF21 and GDF15, messengers within the mitochondrial integrated stress response, when compared to conventional biomarkers. Some diseases manifest secondary metabolite or metabolomic imbalances (e.g., NAD+ deficiency) stemming from a primary cause. Nevertheless, these imbalances hold significance as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. For therapeutic trial success, the ideal biomarker profile must be precisely matched to the particular disease being evaluated. The diagnostic accuracy and longitudinal monitoring of mitochondrial disease patients have been significantly improved by the introduction of novel biomarkers, which facilitate the development of individualized diagnostic pathways and are essential for evaluating treatment response.

Since 1988, when the first mutation in mitochondrial DNA was linked to Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), mitochondrial optic neuropathies have held a prominent position within mitochondrial medicine. Subsequent to 2000, mutations in the OPA1 gene, situated within nuclear DNA, were found to be connected to autosomal dominant optic atrophy (DOA). Selective neurodegeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is a hallmark of both LHON and DOA, arising from mitochondrial dysfunction. The different clinical expressions observed result from the intricate link between respiratory complex I impairment in LHON and the mitochondrial dynamics defects present in OPA1-related DOA. Both eyes are affected by a severe, subacute, and rapid loss of central vision in LHON, a condition appearing within weeks or months, commonly between the ages of 15 and 35. DOA, a type of optic neuropathy, usually becomes evident in early childhood, characterized by its slower, progressive course. VER155008 The defining features of LHON are significant incomplete penetrance and a demonstrable male predisposition. Next-generation sequencing's impact on the understanding of genetic causes for rare forms of mitochondrial optic neuropathies, including those displaying recessive or X-linked inheritance, has been profound, further demonstrating the remarkable sensitivity of retinal ganglion cells to mitochondrial dysfunction. Various mitochondrial optic neuropathies, including LHON and DOA, potentially lead to the development of either optic atrophy alone or a broader multisystemic condition. Gene therapy, along with other therapeutic approaches, is currently directed toward mitochondrial optic neuropathies, with idebenone remaining the sole approved treatment for mitochondrial disorders.

Inherited inborn errors of metabolism, with a focus on primary mitochondrial diseases, are recognized for their prevalence and complexity. The substantial molecular and phenotypic diversity within this group has made the identification of effective disease-modifying therapies challenging, significantly delaying clinical trial progress due to the numerous significant roadblocks. The intricate process of clinical trial design and implementation has been significantly impacted by the deficiency of robust natural history data, the difficulty in identifying precise biomarkers, the absence of validated outcome measures, and the limitation presented by a modest number of patients. Remarkably, renewed focus on treating mitochondrial dysfunction in widespread diseases, along with supportive regulatory frameworks for therapies for rare conditions, has spurred considerable enthusiasm and activity in developing medications for primary mitochondrial diseases. Past and present clinical trials, and future drug development strategies for primary mitochondrial diseases, are scrutinized in this review.

Personalized reproductive counseling strategies are essential for mitochondrial diseases, taking into account individual variations in recurrence risk and available reproductive choices. Mendelian inheritance characterizes the majority of mitochondrial diseases, which are frequently linked to mutations in nuclear genes. Available for preventing the birth of another severely affected child are prenatal diagnosis (PND) and preimplantation genetic testing (PGT). GMO biosafety Cases of mitochondrial diseases, approximately 15% to 25% of the total, are influenced by mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which can emerge spontaneously (25%) or be inherited from the mother. The recurrence risk associated with de novo mtDNA mutations is low, and pre-natal diagnosis (PND) can be used for reassurance. The recurrence risk associated with heteroplasmic mtDNA mutations, inherited maternally, is often unpredictable, due to the inherent variability of the mitochondrial bottleneck. Predicting the phenotypic outcomes of mtDNA mutations through PND is a theoretically possible strategy, but its widespread applicability is constrained by limitations in phenotype anticipation. Preimplantation Genetic Testing (PGT) presents another avenue for mitigating the transmission of mitochondrial DNA diseases. Embryos carrying a mutant load that remains below the expression threshold are being transferred. To prevent mtDNA disease transmission to a future child, couples who decline PGT can safely consider oocyte donation as an alternative. Clinical application of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) has emerged as a means to prevent the transmission of heteroplasmic and homoplasmic mtDNA mutations.