24–26 Granulocyte colony stimulating factor exerts potent immunomodulatory

effects, enhancing the generation of regulatory T cells27 and tolerogenic dendritic cells.28 Furthermore, it has recently been demonstrated that G-CSF therapy reduces inflammation in Crohn’s disease patients.29 Saracatinib This suggests that G-CSF given to HCV patients to counteract IFN-induced neutropenia may also have undesired effects on the antiviral immune response by enhancing the generation of tolerogenic DC and regulatory T cells. Stimulating G-CSF production in the context of activating the innate immune system as a whole by the use of TLR agonists may counteract IFN-induced neutropenia while also enhancing the anti-viral response. In CP-690550 in vivo the present study, we show for the first time that TLR-7/8 signaling induces significant G-CSF production by human PBMCs and purified monocytes in the presence

of IFN-α (Fig. 3). Furthermore, PBMCs obtained from patients undergoing IFN-α therapy, that were stimulated in vitro with CL097 produced significant amounts of G-CSF (Fig. 4). PBMCs stimulated with CL097 in the presence of IFN-α also secreted granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (data not shown). GM-CSF is a hematopoietic growth factor that has potent adjuvant properties,30 therefore the use of TLR7/8 agonists will have effects that go beyond the induction of G-CSF, possibly enhancing the efficacy of IFN/ribavirin treatment. Human monocytes express high levels of TLR8.31 In addition, IFN-treated dendritic cells have been demonstrated to respond efficiently to TLR7 stimulation.32 TLR7/8 agonists have previously demonstrated potential as anti-viral therapeutics.33–35 Therefore the use of TLR7/8 agonists during IFN-therapy may not only enhance the production of hematopoietic growth factors counteracting IFN-induced

medchemexpress neutropenia, but also have beneficial effects on the anti-viral response by acting on monocytes and dendritic cells. In summary, we have shown that IFN-α has a suppressive effect on G-CSF production by PBMCs, this may contribute to the development of IFN-α-induced neutropenia. Furthermore, stimulation of PBMCs and monocytes with the TLR7/8 agonist CL097 induced both G-CSF and GM-CSF secretion even in the presence of IFN-α suggesting that this and other related compounds may be used to counteract IFN-induced neutropenia. The authors thank Carol McNulty, Sheila O’Toole, Aileen Murphy and Anne Grogan for their help in patient recruitment and sample collection; Catherine Keogh and Tatiana Dempsey for technical assistance and database management. This study was funded by the Irish Health Research Board. The Authors have no conflict of interest to declare. “
“A fatty liver, which is a common feature in insulin-resistant states, can lead to chronic liver disease.